TERESA M. BRAUN, PhD , is President of Braun Communications Consulting GmbH. She has twenty-six years experience in satellite and ground systems and technology, twenty-three in communications, and three in navigation, at major corporations. She earned her PhD at UCLA in electrical engineering in 1989.

PREFACE xixACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiABOUT THE AUTHOR xxiiiABBREVIATIONS xxv1 INTRODUCTION 11.1 What This Book Is About 11.2 Payload 31.3 Conventions 61.4 Book Sources 71.5 Summary of Rest of the Book 7PART I PAYLOAD2 PAYLOAD'S ON-ORBIT ENVIRONMENT 132.1 What Determines Environment 132.2 On-Orbit Environment 202.3 General Effects of Environment on Payload 273 ANTENNA 333.1 Introduction 333.2 General Antenna Concepts 353.3 Single-Beam Reflector Antenna 483.4 Horn 543.5 Antenna Array 573.6 Reflector-Based Multibeam Antenna 643.7 Autotrack 684 FILTER AND PAYLOAD-INTEGRATION ELEMENTS 794.1 Introduction 794.2 Impedance Mismatch 804.3 RF Lines for Payload Integration 824.3.1 Coaxial Cable 834.4 Other Payload-Integration Elements Aside from Switch 944.5 Filter 974.6 Switch and Redundancy 1115 LOW-NOISE AMPLIFIER AND FREQUENCY CONVERTER 1235.1 Introduction 1235.2 Low-Noise Amplifiers and Frequency Converters in Payload 1245.3 Intermodulation Products 1265.4 Low-Noise Amplifier 1275.4.1 LNA Unit Architecture and Technology 1275.5 Frequency Converter 1326 PREAMPLIFIER AND HIGH-POWER AMPLIFIER 1476.1 Introduction 1476.2 High-Power Amplifier Concepts and Terms 1486.3 Traveling-Wave Tube Amplifier versus Solid-State Power Amplifier 1536.4 Traveling-Wave Tube Amplifier Subsystem 1556.5 Solid-State Power Amplifier 1707 PAYLOAD'S COMMUNICATIONS PARAMETERS 1817.1 Introduction 1817.2 Gain Variation with Frequency 1847.3 Phase Variation with Frequency 1877.4 Channel Bandwidth 1897.5 Phase Noise 1907.6 Frequency Stability 1907.7 Spurious Signals from Frequency Converter 1917.8 High-Power Amplifier Nonlinearity 1927.9 Spurious Signals from High-Power Amplifier Subsystem 1927.10 Stability of Gain and Power-Out of High-Power Amplifier Subsystem 1947.11 Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power 1957.12 Figure of Merit G/Ts 1967.13 Self-Interference 1997.14 Passive Intermodulation Products 2018 MORE ANALYSES FOR PAYLOAD DEVELOPMENT 2078.1 Introduction 2078.2 How to Deal with Noise Figure 2088.3 How to Make and Maintain Payload Performance Budgets 2118.4 High-Power Amplifier Topics 2238.5 How to Avoid Monte Carlo Simulations on Gaussian Random Variables 2319 PROCESSING PAYLOAD 2419.1 Introduction 2419.2 Capabilities of Current Processing Payloads 2429.3 Digital-Processing Elements Common to Both Nonregenerative and Regenerative Payloads 2459.4 Nonregenerative Processing-Payload 2489.5 Regenerative Payload 250PART II PAYLOAD IN END-TO-END COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM10 PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS THEORY 25910.1 Introduction 25910.2 Communications Theory Fundamentals 26010.3 Modulating Transmitter 26810.4 Filters 27810.5 Demodulating Receiver 28110.6 SNR, Es/N0, and Eb/N0 29310.7 Summary of Signal Distortion Sources 29511 COMMUNICATIONS LINK 29911.1 Introduction 29911.2 End-to-End C/N0 30011.3 Signal Power on Link 30111.4 Noise Level on Link 31111.5 Interference on Link 31211.6 Link Budget 31712 PROBABILISTIC TREATMENT OF MULTIBEAM DOWNLINKS 32112.1 Introduction 32112.2 Multibeam-Downlink Payload Specifications 32212.3 Repeater-Caused Variation of C and C/Iself and Nominal Value 32412.4 Combining Antenna-Caused Variation into Repeater-Caused Variation 33312.5 Payload-Caused Variation of CI(I+N) 33712.6 Combining Atmosphere-Caused Variation into Payload-Caused Variation 33712.7 Optimizing Multibeam-Downlink Payload Specified on Link Availability 33913 END-TO-END COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM MODEL WITH FOCUS ON PAYLOAD 34313.1 Introduction 34313.2 Considerations for Both Software Simulation and Hardware Emulation 34413.3 Additional Considerations for Simulation 35213.4 Additional Considerations for Emulation 359References 362INDEX 363

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This is the first book primarily about the satellite payload of satellite communications systems. It represents a unique combination of practical systems engineering and communications theory. It tells about the satellites in geostationary and low-earth orbits today, both the so-called bent-pipe payloads and the processing payloads. The on-orbit environment, mitigated by the spacecraft bus, is described. The payload units (e.g. antennas and amplifiers), as well as payload-integration elements (e.g. waveguide and switches) are discussed in regard to how they work, what they do to the signal, their technology, environment sensitivity, and specifications. At a higher level are discussions on the payload as an entity: architecture including redundancy; specifications--what they mean, how they relate to unit specifications, and how to verify; and specification-compliance analysis ("budgets") with uncertainty. Aspects of probability theory handy for calculating and using uncertainty and variation are presented. The highest-level discussions, on the end-to-end communications system, start with a practical introduction to physical-layer communications theory. Atmospheric effects and interference on the communications link are described. A chapter gives an example of optimizing a multibeam payload via probabilistic analysis. Finally, practical tips on system simulation and emulation are provided. The carrier frequencies treated are 1 GHz and above. Familiarity with Fourier analysis will enhance understanding of some topics. References are provided throughout the book for readers who want to dig deeper.Payload systems engineers, payload proposal writers, satellite-communications systems designers and analysts, and satellite customers will find that the book cuts their learning time. Spacecraft-bus systems engineers, payload unit engineers, and spacecraft operators will gain insight into the overall system. Students in systems engineering, microwave engineering, communications theory, probability theory, and communications simulation and modelling will find examples to supplement theoretical texts.