With the consequences of the world's gas flaring practices only just beginning to be understood or even studied, this volume is the first in decades to tackle a very difficult hot-button issue for our time that could significantly reduce CO2 emissions and their affect on global warming. When properly used and maintained, flare gas systems can be a safe and reliable technology for system protection and in controlling emissions stemming from emergency releases. However, when misused and/or not carefully maintained, flaring operations can be a significant source of toxic emissions that adversely impact on air quality. Further to this, there are often misconceptions and misrepresentations on flaring efficiencies. This has led to under reporting of releases of toxins within communities. Flares are widely used throughout the oil refining and petrochemical industries to manage waste gases and as a means of safety control of over pressurization of process units. Both industry and environmental statutes concerning the regulation of flares characterize flaring as a safe practice that is capable of controlling air emissions to a high level of efficiency. But flaring operations are conducted far more frequently than systems were originally intended to operate, and aging refineries and petrochemical plants have given low priority to the critical maintenance and replacement of flare system components. The consequences have been far greater emissions than are generally reported along with serious accidents that have caused loss of lives and extensive damages to facility infrastructure and community property. This volume is intended as a technical reference for refineries and chemical plants. The information contained herein is the result of reviewing the general literature of flaring options and technologies, reviewing industry and U.S. EPA-published studies, and examining some of the practices of certain refinery operations where information has been accessible.

With the consequences of the world's gas flaring practices only just beginning to be understood or even studied, this volume is the first in decades to tackle a very difficult hot-button issue for our time that could significantly reduce CO2 emissions and their affect on global warming.When properly used and maintained, flare gas systems can be a safe and reliable technology for system protection and in controlling emissions stemming from emergency releases. However, when misused and/or not carefully maintained, flaring operations can be a significant source of toxic emissions that adversely impact on air quality. Further to this, there are often misconceptions and misrepresentations on flaring efficiencies. This has led to under reporting of releases of toxins within communities.Flares are widely used throughout the oil refining and petrochemical industries to manage waste gases and as a means of safety control of over pressurization of process units. Both industry and environmental statutes concerning the regulation of flares characterize flaring as a safe practice that is capable of controlling air emissions to a high level of efficiency. But flaring operations are conducted far more frequently than systems were originally intended to operate, and aging refineries and petrochemical plants have given low priority to the critical maintenance and replacement of flare system components. The consequences have been far greater emissions than are generally reported along with serious accidents that have caused loss of lives and extensive damages to facility infrastructure and community property.This volume is intended as a technical reference for refineries and chemical plants. The information contained herein is the result of reviewing the general literature of flaring options and technologies, reviewing industry and U.S. EPA-published studies, and examining some of the practices of certain refinery operations where information has been accessible.

Preface viiAbout the author xi1 Principles of Combustion 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Combustion Basics 31.3 Physical Gas Laws 91.4 Stoichiometric and Thermodynamic Considerations 111.5 Ignition 121.6 Flammability and Flammable Mixtures 141.7 Gas Mixtures 202 Overview of Flares and Gas Flaring Practices 232.1 General Description 232.2 Types of Flares 252.3 Flare System Components and Design Features 322.4 Flare Regulations 382.5 Flare Enforcement Actions 482.6 Major Suppliers 522.7 Flare Terminology 523 Overview of Disposal Systems and Relief Headers 593.1 Blowdown Systems 593.2 Disposal System Components 633.3 Quench Drum 703.4 Seals and the Seal Drum 713.5 Knockout Drums 734 Flare Types 754.1 Introduction 754.2 Hydrogen Assisted Flares 774.3 Steam Assisted Flares 924.4 Efficiency and Smoking Flares 975 Remote Sensing and Monitoring 1035.1 Introduction 1035.2 Remote Sensing Dial Technology 1035.3 Experience 1066 Practical Considerations and Emissions Calculations1136.1 Introduction 1136.2 Sizing Considerations 1146.3 General Permit Obligations 1186.4 Monitoring System Requirements 1226.5 Marama Guidelines for Calculating Flare Emissions 1306.6 TCEQ New Source Review (NSR) Emission Calculations 1366.7 U.S. EPA's AP-42 1456.8 Calculations Versus Measurement 1527 Case Studies 1577.1 Introduction 1577.2 The Exxon Chalmette Refinery 1587.3 The BP Texas City Refinery 1707.4 Valero Tennessee Refinery 232Appendix 241Properties Data 241