'Table of Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and Purpose 1
1.2 Objectives 1
1.3 Approach, Scope and Structure 2
1.4 Limitations 3
2 Historical and Theoretical Background of Mission Command
and Management by Objectives 5
2.1 History of Mission Command 5
2.1.1 1806-1857: The Prussian Fiasco As The Beginning of a New Era 6
2.1.2 1857-1871: Von Moltke and the Incident of Metz 9
2.1.3 1871-1906: The Official Breakthrough of Mission Command 10
2.1.4 1914-1945: Mission Command Passing the Trial of Fire in Storms of Steel 12
2.1.5 1946-2014: Internationalisation of Mission Command
and Recent Developments 14
2.2 Mission Command 18
2.2.1 The Core Principles of Mission Command 18
2.2.1.1 Trust 19
2.2.1.2 Independence 20
2.2.1.3 Intent 21
2.2.2 Strategy 22
2.2.2.1 Approach to Strategy under Mission Command 22
2.2.2.2 The Importance of Speed 23
2.2.3 Organisational Culture 24
2.2.4 Organisation and Structure 27
2.2.5 Leadership 28
2.2.6 Education and Professional Training 29
2.2.6.1 Core principles: Trust, Independence, and Intent. 30
2.2.6.2 Strategy 31
2.2.6.3 Organisational Culture 32
2.2.6.4 Structure 32
2.2.7 Environment 33
2.3 Management by Objectives 35
2.3.1 Adaption of the MbO Concept in Practise 35
2.3.2 Current Status of MbO in Practise 36
2.3.3 Comparison of Mission Command and MbO 37
2.4 Goal-Setting Theory 38
2.4.1 Self-Efficacy and Its Effects on Performance and Work Motivation 39
2.4.1.1 The Determinants of Self-Efficacy 41
2.4.1.2 The Three Assessments in the Process of Forming Self-Efficacy 41
2.4.1.3 Measures to Influence Self-Efficacy 42
2.4.1.4 Self-Efficacy and Socialisation Tactics of Organisations 43
2.4.1.5 Reflection on Self-Efficacy and Mission Command 44
2.4.2 Goal-Setting and Goal Characteristics 45
2.4.2.1 Goal Choice: Goal Difficulty vs. Task Difficulty and Specific Goals
vs. General Exhortation 45
2.4.2.2 Goal and Efficiency Mechanism 46
2.4.2.3 Goal Moderators 46
2.4.3 Personality Traits and Values 50
2.5 Requirements for Mission Command 51
2.5.1 Leadership Requirements 52
2.5.2 Education and Professional Training Requirements 54
2.5.3 Other Requirements for Mission Command 56
3 National Culture, Leadership and Education in China 57
3.1 National Culture of China Derived from Cultural Research 58
3.1.1 Performance Orientation 63
3.1.1.1 Achievement 64
3.1.1.2 Achievement Versus Ascription 65
3.1.1.3 External Adaption 65
3.1.1.4 Perspective on Time 67
3.1.1.5 Language 68
3.1.2 Future Orientation 69
3.1.3 Gender Egalitarianism 70
3.1.4 Assertiveness 71
3.1.5 Individualism and Collectivism 73
3.1.6 Power Distance 75
3.1.7 Humane Orientation 78
3.1.8 Uncertainty Avoidance 80
3.2 Leadership in China 82
3.2.1 Philosophical Background of Chinese Contemporary Leadership Style 82
3.2.1.1 Confucianism 82
3.2.1.2 Legalism 85
3.2.1.3 The Confucian School of Thought of Xunzi 87
3.2.1.4 Daoism 88
3.2.1.5 Military Arts Philosophy 90
3.2.2 Paternalistic Leadership as Indigenous Leadership Style of China 91
3.2.3 Cultural Research on Leadership in China 93
3.2.4 Summary: Leadership in China 96
3.3 Education in China 96
3.3.1 Confucianism as the Fundament of the Current Chinese Education system 96
3.3.2 Core Values of Chinese Learning 97
3.3.3 The Gaokao 99
3.3.4 Learning Process and Strategies in China 99
3.3.5 Didactics and Behaviour in School 100
3.3.6 Motivational Aspects of Chinese Learning 102
3.3.7 Outcome of the Educational System 103
4 The Possibility of Mission Command in China 105
4.1 Chinese Education System: Fostering Independent Action within the Intent? 105
4.1.1 The Importance of Practise and the Pursuit of Independence 105
4.1.2 The Intent as Borderline of Independent Action 107
4.1.3 Summary 108
4.2 Chinese Culture and the Creation of Trust 109
4.2.1 The Impact of In-Group Collectivism on Internal Organisational Trust 109
4.2.2 The Role of the Leader and the Creation of Trust 110
4.2.3 Summary 111
4.3 Chi

The global business environment is becoming more complex and business activities are increasing in speed. In this volatile environment, companies will need to adjust their approach to strategy, their organizational setup and leadership model in order to be sustainably successful. In military history, armies have gone through the same development. Since the 19th century the concept of Mission Command (Auftragstaktik) has been proven to offer superior performance and competitive advantages through systematic empowerment of employees, decentralised decision-making and allowing (calculated) risk-taking under the severest and most demanding situation: war. In the first part of this book, the historical development of Mission Command is reconstructed and key elements derived. Readers will gain a deeper understanding of the concept of Mission Command, in what situations its application is beneficial, and what is needed for its successful implementation. In the second part, the potential as well as the limitations of Mission Command in China are analysed by contrasting the requirements with findings on Chinese national culture and leadership. This is particularly useful for Chinese and Western leaders of Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SME) working in cross-cultural environments and will enable them to apply an appropriate leadership style when setting up, expanding, or reorganising their operations in China.